Female Genital Mutilation in Africa

The story of Fauziya Kassindja, a young African woman seeking asylum in the United States brought worldwide attention to a centuries-old issue. Kassindja was fleeing the practice of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) an act abhorred in the West but still done in large parts of Africa and the Middle East. This practice has deep cultural, ritual and religious roots dating back as many as 2,000 years. Human rights advocates have struggled to eliminate this practice for decades. Their progress, however, has been spotty. FGM is still performed in dozens of countries and an untold number of local tribes.

Opponents of the elimination movement come from two perspectives. A great number of Africans still believe in the practice. They are proud of the social order and practices they have used for many centuries. Another group, the “cultural relativists” may disagree or even abhor the practice but also abhor the imposition of international standards on a proud culture. They believe that the religious and cultural factors that motivate FGM should be respected. FGM, in reality, is intimately connected to economics. As cold as it may sound the primary motivations for continuing this brutal rite are economically-based.

It also stands to reason, therefore, that the most effective means of reducing or eliminating FGM are also economically based. It is unlikely that such a widespread practice can be eliminated in our lifetimes, even by legislative means. Instead, a continuing effort to bring these societies into the global economy provides the best hope of ending coerced Female Genital Mutilation. What is FGM? Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) as a societal rite has been taking place for centuries. According to researcher Fran Hosken, FGM “was already recorded in ancient Egypt more than 2,000 years ago”.

In any tradition as old as this, the reasons for continuation tend to modify over time as societies themselves change and evolve. The ultimate goal is to preserve a woman’s virginity until she is married. The procedure is often accompanied by ritual celebrations that reinforce the importance of FGM in the minds of all tribal members. Most FGM is done in a tribal setting, though use of the practice cuts across many national, cultural and religious lines. Despite worldwide condemnation and increasing media exposure about the practice FGM is still widely practiced. It is most common in sub-Saharan Africa, occurring in at least 26 countries.

Mason states that “more than 127 million African women and girls” have undergone the procedure 2. Individual nations within the sub-Saharan region have differing degrees of participation in FGM, but in many of the nations the rate is quite high. In Sudan and Egypt more than 95 percent of women had undergone some form of FGM. In Ethiopia and Mali the rate is over 85%. In Burkina Faso, Kenya and parts of Uganda it is 70%. 3 There is no singular definition of the process of FGM because its practice takes many forms. Two types of FGM comprise the vast majority of cases that occur today.

The two most common types of FGM are excision and infibulation. Excision, also referred to as clitoridectomy, involves removal of the clitoris in its entirety. In some cases, 1. F. Hosken. “Female Genital Mutilation: Strategies for Eradication,” Presented at The First International Symposium on Circumcision, March 1-2, Anaheim, California (1989). 2. M. Mason. “Atrocities Against Women: Female Genital Mutilation. ” World Service Authority. (1996). http://www. worldservice. org/issues/junjul96/fgm. html (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). 3. Program for Appropriate Technology in Health (PATH).

“Eradicating Female Genital Mutilation:” Lessons for Donors. ” (2000). http://www. wgf. org/publications/reports/2000/paper_fgm. pdf (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). parts of the labia minor are also removed. Infibulation is excision plus cutting of parts of the labia majora. The remaining parts of the labia majora are then sewn together. The technique for this final element differs among individual tribes and geographical regions. For those fortunate enough to have the procedure done in a hospital, standard sutures are used. Since most of the women do not have this access, catgut or even thorns might be used.

In other cases, the young woman’s legs are simply tied together until closure occurs naturally. As local tribes and communities try to resist pressure to end this practice from the outside world a disturbing trend has emerged. In Sudan and other nations where FGM is performed most often researchers have discovered a “progressive lowering of the age at which girls undergo the practice” 4. The Sabiny tribe is typical of the local tribes that practice FGM. Located in Uganda, the tribe is actually part of a larger ethnic group that presides mostly in neighboring Kenya.

The Sabiny organized into small villages that exist mostly by hunting pheasant and other small animals. The tribe members are extremely close-knit and resist outside influences. The tribe has practiced infibulation, most commonly with the woman lying on the ground, for centuries. When complications with the procedure arise the person who performed the procedure is typically not blamed. Instead a religious explanation, such as “evil spirits” is given. The women rarely have access to outside help in order to treat these complications. In response to outside pressures tribal leaders have taken steps to reinforce the traditional social order.

In this order, women serve critical roles but are expected to 4. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “When culture harms the girls – the globalization of female genital mutilation. ” (2008). http://www. irinnews. org/IndepthMain. aspx? IndepthId=15&ReportId=62462 (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). remain subservient to the men. Lowering the age to a point where the girls are too young to either have a choice or even be exposed to differing perspectives on FGM is one way that tribal elders and community leaders have tried to maintain a male-dominated social hierarchy.

FGM is far from being a benign process. Because of its secretive nature, accurate statistics on health complications are difficult to acquire. There is very little dispute, however, that they do occur. The trauma many women face when undergoing Female Genital Mutilation is better documented. The testimony of a young woman from Djibouti is typical of those who undergo this procedure in less than ideal conditions: I was under horrible pain when they cut me. All these women around me telling me to bear it. How could I? I screamed for help but nobody saved me. ” said a girl from Djibouti.

5 The procedure is not only painful, but risky. The statistics vary by country based on a variety of factors. Ghanan women face a one in 35 chance that FGM will result in death. There is also risk to the future children of women who survive the FGM process. Infant mortality for these women in Sudan averages 44 per 1000 births. In Nigeria it is even higher averaging 88 deaths per 1000 births. 6 The wealthier elites of African society are increasingly turning to hospitals and clinics to perform the procedure. The vast majority of Africans do not have that option.

The procedure is most often performed by unlicensed tribal members in unsanitary huts with makeshift, unsterilized medical instruments. The ramifications can be severe for these women who are “very poor and do not have access to modern health facilities, 6. B. Ras-Work. “The impact of harmful traditional practices on the girl child. ” Presented at the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) in collaboration with UNICEF Expert Group Meeting, Sept 25-28. Florence, Italy. (2006). medical emergencies arising from FGM are common, and often lead to death. ” 7

Why is FGM Practiced? Defenders of the practice of Female Genital Mutilation most often cite its religious and cultural significance. FGM is seen as the best way, in some cultures, of ensuring a woman’s sexual purity. In many African cultures it is believed that a woman is unable to control her own sexuality. This practice, defenders say, makes it easier for her to do so, also providing her at least some protection from sexual assault. Concepts about a woman’s role in African society are the products of thousands of years of tradition and relative isolation from the outside world.

Though seen as an odd and cruel procedure in the west many Africans believe that FGM can “enhance the girl’s femininity, often synonymous with docility and obedience” 8. These concepts have permeated religious thought in the area but their source is primarily cultural. FGM is not only used by the large Muslim population of sub-Saharan Africa; it is also used by the Coptic Christians. There is a perception that pervades much of African society that the female genitalia are ugly. Removal of the clitoris, they believe, enhances femininity and reduces masculinity because the clitoris is a visual reminder of masculine traits.

Conversely, men are circumcised for similar reasons. It is believed that the part of the penis that is removed is a sign of femininity. Circumcision, then, enhances man’s masculinity. For the men, however, the process of circumcision is far less damaging and intrusive than what the women must face. 7. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “When culture harms the girls – the globalization of female genital mutilation. ” (2008). http://www. irinnews. org/IndepthMain. aspx? IndepthId=15&ReportId=62462 (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). 8.

Amnesty International. “What is Female Genital Mutilation? ” AI Index. (1997). http://www. amnesty. org/en/alfresco_asset/df016baa-b3ef-11dc-b033-974214843c58/act770061997en. pdf (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). Ultimately the process has an economic motivation. In the tribes and communities where FGM is commonplace, women are essentially the property of men. As such, a poorly performed FGM procedure can result in “damaged merchandise”. As Hosken puts it; “the smaller the artificial passage is, the greater the value of the girl and the higher the bride price” 9.

A smaller passage increases the odds that the young woman is still a virgin. This is a highly prized trait especially in Muslim tribes. The process of setting a price for brides is still widely practiced throughout Africa irrespective of the practices of individual tribes. The woman to be married is examined by female relatives in order to set a price. The price is then paid by the father of the groom or the husband to be. Once married, the women are then cut open to allow for sexual intercourse. In the eyes of those who support FGM, the practice benefits the greater good of the community.

This highlights a fundamental difference in perspective between the Africans of this region and the rest of the industrialized world which is more focused on the rights of the individual. The cultural roots of this practice run deep. Even modern day, well educated African leaders subscribe to the practice. The process toward decreasing or eliminating FGM suffers when well-respected leaders like Jomo Kenyatta make statements such as: “No proper Kikuyu would dream of marrying a girl who has not been circumcised” 10. It is this sort of perspective that leads to ostracization and severe discrimination against women considering not having FGM.

9. F. Hosken. “Female Genital Mutilation: Strategies for Eradication,” Presented at The First International Symposium on Circumcision, March 1-2, Anaheim, California (1989). 10. F. Hosken. “Female Genital Mutilation: Strategies for Eradication,” Presented at The First International Symposium on Circumcision, March 1-2, Anaheim, California (1989). Poverty and lack of economic options, especially for women, allow this process to continue well into the 21st century. While a woman might be able to endure social ostracization, ridicule and being unmarried; economic circumstances are more difficult to manage.

The reality of the economic situation in sub-Saharan Africa has forced many women and their families to rationalize the practice of ritual Female Genital Mutilation. “Because marriage is an economic necessity in countries where circumcision is prevalent, it is ‘seen as an act of love, rather than one of cruelty. ” 11 Intervention vs. Non-intervention An ongoing debate exists within the international community as to whether it is ethical to try to eliminate the traditional practices of another culture. There is no simple answer to this question. Cultural relativists argue that imposing international cultural standards on any culture is wrong.

The African tribes and cultures where FGM is used have been in place far longer than any industrialized western nation. These cultures, relativists argue, have found the way that works best for themselves. Outside nations dictating cultural change sets dangerous precedents. Some African scholars argue a similar point: African conceptions of human rights spring from these values of community, which are different from western ideas that emphasize individual human rights. African scholars argue that western notions of human rights are irrelevant to the African situation. 12 11. United Nations.

“Somalia: Information on female genital mutilation in Somalia, on the methods used in various regions and on the consequences of refusal; also, information on the presence in Somalia of women’s organizations concerned with this issue. ” DIRB Paper. (1996). http://www. unhcr. org/cgibin/texis/vtx/print? tbl=RSDCOI&id=3ae6aaab44 (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). 12. J. Goltzman. Cultural Relativism or Cultural Intrusion? “Female Ritual Slavery in Western Africa and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Ghana as a Case Study. ” New England International and Comparative Law Annual.

Vol. 4; (1998): pp. 53-72. Relativists also argue that trying to change a centuries old practice from outside is a self-defeating process. Laws can change, but changing the minds of people is an entirely different, and far more difficult, process. For that matter, attempts to change long-standing tradition could lead to behavior which, by western standards, is even worse. In summarizing the arguments of relativists, Goltzman writes that the “difficulties inherent in comparing first and third world practices, and therefore, the necessity of cultural relativism is further justified. ” 13

In contrast, human rights advocates feel that cruelty, in any culture, is cruelty. The religious and ritual aspects of FGM, many of which have become minimized over the years, do not justify a cruel process that is rooted in inequality. Female Genital Mutilation and many other traditional practices have the purpose of keeping women uneducated, dependent and subservient. FGM and other practices that keep women subservient took root in ancient times when the world was not nearly as interconnected. The trend toward globalization and integration of the world’s economies may force the hand of those sitting on the fence.

FGM has been found to be taking place in more western countries than previously thought, including the United States. There is no doubt, and anecdotal evidence exists, that immigrants from Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, or certain ethnic groups of Kenya, Nigeria, etc. , are having their small daughters mutilated in the U. S. ” 14 FGM and other practices that keep women subservient took root in ancient times 13. J. Goltzman. Cultural Relativism or Cultural Intrusion? “Female Ritual Slavery in Western Africa and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Ghana as a Case Study.

” New England International and Comparative Law Annual. Vol. 4; (1998): pp. 53-72. 14. F. Hosken. “Female Genital Mutilation: Strategies for Eradication,” Presented at The First International Symposium on Circumcision, March 1-2, Anaheim, California (1989). when the world was not nearly as interconnected. If an increasingly interconnected world economy has led to the spread of FGM by means of emigration, it also provides an opportunity for decreasing or eliminating it. A modernizing economy typically leads to a modernizing culture. Multinational companies in a competitive labor market are constantly opening new labor sources.

Favorable economic and tax policies in African countries could enhance this process. At the same time, complete upheaval of the African societies could create a chaotic situation in which people would hold on to traditional practices more than ever. A careful, intelligent process that gives the African people choice in their own future is necessary. Whether globalization is a good process overall is a separate, debatable issue. It does provide newfound opportunities in third world nations. With an integrated governmental, international and corporate effort, conditions could be created that de-emphasize the perceived need for FGM.

Outreach workers and international pressure will still be important factors in maintaining this new environment. Ultimately, the change cannot be mandated. The people of Africa must become convinced independently that FGM is not right – but more importantly, that it is not needed. Advocates working against Female Genital Mutilation Analysis and Conclusion Mohamud writes that the practice of Female Genital Mutilation in Africa presents a “challenge unique in both nature and magnitude” 15. It is an ethical issue with many conflicting sides. Does cultural tradition justify this behavior?

Should the world try to impose international standards on small African tribes even in the name of human rights? 15. A. Mohamud, N. Ali and N. Yinger. “Female Genital Mutilation Programmes to Date: What Works and What Doesn’t A Review. ” Washington, D. C. : Partnership for Appropriate Health Technology. (1999). How much is FGM economically driven and what other economic options could be provided? In order to answer these larger questions some more specific questions must be addressed. For example – Does FGM hurt women? Evidence sows that the answer is “yes”.

The extent to which women are physically and psychologically hurt is impossible to determine given the secrecy of the practice. Hospitals, missionaries and researchers have documented the harm FGM can do, however. The short-term complications of Female Genital Mutilation are alarming. They include: Hemorrhage, infections, shock, retention of urine, damage to adjacent tissues, dermoid cysts, abscesses, keloid scarring, infertility caused by chronic pelvic infections, and psychological maiming. 16 In the long-term FGM has profound psychological complications.

These complications often prevent young women from being able to live up to their full potential. An increasing number of women are becoming political refugees in an attempt to escape the process of Female Genital Mutilation. Moving to a completely foreign culture is a traumatic process in and of itself. Some women have left Africa after already having had FGM. For these women, it can be difficult to leave the culture behind. Women are instructed from their birth not only to be subservient, but also that Female Genital Mutilation is a key step in becoming a woman.

Once they have children of their own, many women who have been coerced into having FGM, still feel the need to perpetuate the practice on their own girls. This cultural pull does not disappear even if the women leave Africa. There are 16. M. Mason. “Atrocities Against Women: Female Genital Mutilation. ” World Service Authority. (1996). http://www. worldservice. org/issues/junjul96/fgm. html (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). documented cases of women risking legal consequences and the health of their children to have FGM done, even though they themselves suffered a great deal of trauma because of this practice.

At the same time, it is doubtless that many women who have undergone FGM have gone on to live productive, contented lives. Resistance to banning the procedure is strong. In fact; “some parents in countries with severe laws against genital mutilation choose to send their daughters to Somalia to have them undergo the operation there. ” 17 Some sociological researchers warn of the danger of adopting an approach of cultural relativism. Just because a practice has been done in a culture for thousands of years does not mean that it should be done.

Adopting a “hands off” approach to cultural tradition could slow or even stop a worldwide drive toward justice. Even if the participants in FGM go unaffected, the world community must take a stand for what it believes is right. The failure to do so can only lead to greater injustices in the future. At least part of the reason FGM still exists is due to misconceptions about its medical benefits. In this regard, greater funded outreach programs can still have an effect. At the very least they provide an additional source of information for tribal leaders to consider.

As generations pass the newer concepts about FGM could gradually become entrenched. Ultimately, the key to reducing FGM is to provide women in Africa with greater economic options. This process can be started in some places through legal means. Many of the two-dozen African countries where FGM occurs have outlawed the process. 17. United Nations. “Somalia: Information on female genital mutilation in Somalia, on the methods used in various regions and on the consequences of refusal; also, information on the presence in Somalia of women’s organizations concerned with this issue.

” DIRB Paper. (1996). http://www. unhcr. org/cgibin/texis/vtx/print? tbl=RSDCOI&id=3ae6aaab44 (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). Continuing legal processes toward equality can help lead to cultural changes in areas where FGM is common. “As long as women have no property or ownership rights, they cannot control their bodies and lives. ” 18 Female Genital Mutilation is just one of several practices that have the effect of devaluing women as people and valuing them mainly in terms of property. The male-dominated hierarchy that gives rise to FGM is still present throughout much of Africa.

“Several studies both scientific and social attest the fact that value based discrimination is systemic and universal” 19. Changing such a vast and deeply rooted social phenomenon is a daunting challenge. To their credit some African leaders have begun to take up the challenge legislatively. The reality, however, is that legal changes only have a limited effect. In the United States, prohibition was an attempt to make a widespread practice illegal by statute. The effort was a failure because a lucrative black market was created and the full support of the population was never attained.

The African attempts to end FGM are somewhat similar. The laws attempt to impose a standard on a large number of people who have lived their lives by their own, differing standard. The economic specifics are different. In 1930s alcohol became a way to make money where few others existed. In the African tribes, marriages are what provide financial security for the entire family. Finding a good marriage for a daughter means providing a valuable “product”. Cultural tradition dictates that FGM is central to a woman’s “value”. Repealing Prohibition changed the economic conditions that caused the crime

18. M. Mason. “Atrocities Against Women: Female Genital Mutilation. ” World Service Authority. (1996). http://www. worldservice. org/issues/junjul96/fgm. html (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). 19. B. Ras-Work. “The impact of harmful traditional practices on the girl child. ” Presented at the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) in collaboration with UNICEF Expert Group Meeting, Sept 25-28. Florence, Italy. (2006). wave of the early 1930s. in other words, changing the economic situation had a far more pronounced effect on behavior than legislation.

The same can be true in Africa, although the process will be much longer and less direct. A multi-faceted effort that respects the culture and tradition of the African cultures but offers alternative choices can erode the practice of Female Genital Mutilation over time. The vast majority of the international community sees FGM as a cruel and inhuman practice. At the same time the international community must be careful not to take actions that cause the practice to become more entrenched than ever. The best and probably the only way to end FGM is to allow the participants themselves to end it over time.

As Ras-Work stated at an expert group meeting of the United Nations Division for the Advancement of women in collaboration with UNICEF; “The final decision should come from within without imposition. There is need to nurture the changes taking place in a sustained manner. ” 20 20. B. Ras-Work. “The impact of harmful traditional practices on the girl child. ” Presented at the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) in collaboration with UNICEF Expert Group Meeting, Sept 25-28. Florence, Italy. (2006). Notes 1. F. Hosken.

“Female Genital Mutilation: Strategies for Eradication,” Presented at The First International Symposium on Circumcision, March 1-2, Anaheim, California (1989). 2. M. Mason. “Atrocities Against Women: Female Genital Mutilation. ” World Service Authority. (1996). http://www. worldservice. org/issues/junjul96/fgm. html (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). 3. Program for Appropriate Technology in Health (PATH). “Eradicating Female Genital Mutilation:” Lessons for Donors. ”(2000). http://www. wgf. org/publications/reports/2000/paper_fgm. pdf (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). 4.

UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “When culture harms the girls – the globalization of female genital mutilation. ” (2008). http://www. irinnews. org/IndepthMain. aspx? IndepthId=15&ReportId=62462 (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). 5. B. Ras-Work. “The impact of harmful traditional practices on the girl child. ” Presented at the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) in collaboration with UNICEF Expert Group Meeting, Sept 25-28. Florence, Italy. (2006). 6. B. Ras-Work. “The impact of harmful traditional practices on the girl child. ” Presented

at the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) in collaboration with UNICEF Expert Group Meeting, Sept 25-28. Florence, Italy. (2006). 7. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “When culture harms the girls – the globalization of female genital mutilation. ” (2008). http://www. irinnews. org/IndepthMain. aspx? IndepthId=15&ReportId=62462 (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). 8. Amnesty International. “What is Female Genital Mutilation? ” AI Index. (1997). http://www. amnesty. org/en/alfresco_asset/df016baa-b3ef-11dc-b033-974214843c58/act770061997en. pdf (accessed 10 Jan. 2008).

9. F. Hosken. “Female Genital Mutilation: Strategies for Eradication,” Presented at The First International Symposium on Circumcision, March 1-2, Anaheim, California (1989). 10. F. Hosken. “Female Genital Mutilation: Strategies for Eradication,” Presented at The First International Symposium on Circumcision, March 1-2, Anaheim, California (1989). 11. United Nations. “Somalia: Information on female genital mutilation in Somalia, on the methods used in various regions and on the consequences of refusal; also, information on the presence in Somalia of women’s organizations concerned with this issue.

” DIRB Paper. (1996). http://www. unhcr. org/cgibin/texis/vtx/print? tbl=RSDCOI&id=3ae6aaab44 (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). 12. J. Goltzman. Cultural Relativism or Cultural Intrusion? “Female Ritual Slavery in Western Africa and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Ghana as a Case Study. ” New England International and Comparative Law Annual. Vol. 4; (1998): pp. 53-72. 13. J. Goltzman. Cultural Relativism or Cultural Intrusion? “Female Ritual Slavery in Western Africa and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Ghana as a Case Study.

” New England International and Comparative Law Annual. Vol. 4; (1998): pp. 53-72. 14. F. Hosken. “Female Genital Mutilation: Strategies for Eradication,” Presented at The First International Symposium on Circumcision, March 1-2, Anaheim, California (1989). 15. A. Mohamud, N. Ali and N. Yinger. “Female Genital Mutilation Programmes to Date: What Works and What Doesn’t A Review. ” Washington, D. C. : Partnership for Appropriate Health Technology. (1999). 16. M. Mason. “Atrocities Against Women: Female Genital Mutilation. ” World Service Authority. (1996).

http://www.worldservice. org/issues/junjul96/fgm. html (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). 17. United Nations. “Somalia: Information on female genital mutilation in Somalia, on the methods used in various regions and on the consequences of refusal; also, information on the presence in Somalia of women’s organizations concerned with this issue. ” DIRB Paper. (1996). http://www. unhcr. org/cgibin/texis/vtx/print? tbl=RSDCOI&id=3ae6aaab44 (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). 18. M. Mason. “Atrocities Against Women: Female Genital Mutilation. ” World Service Authority. (1996).

http://www. worldservice.org/issues/junjul96/fgm. html (accessed 10 Jan. 2008). 19. B. Ras-Work. “The impact of harmful traditional practices on the girl child. ” Presented at the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) in collaboration with UNICEF Expert Group Meeting, Sept 25-28. Florence, Italy. (2006). 20. B. Ras-Work. “The impact of harmful traditional practices on the girl child. ” Presented at the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) in collaboration with UNICEF Expert Group Meeting, Sept 25-28. Florence, Italy. (2006).

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